Antibodies (Human Anatomy): Image, Functions, Diseases and Treatments

Immune system proteins are called antibodies. They eliminate toxins, viruses, bacteria, fungi, and other antigens from your body. You are shielded from harmful substances by antibodies. Antibodies are created by your immune system to remove foreign substances. Immunoglobulin is another name for an antibody.

Antigens are ingested foreign substances. Bacteria, viruses, fungi, allergens, venom, and other toxins are examples. Antibodies are immune system proteins that attack and destroy antigens.

B-cells (specialised white blood cells) generate antibodies. B cells divide and clone in response to antigens. These cloned B cells or plasma cells create millions of antibodies..

Antibodies can be found in the skin, lungs, tears, saliva, and breast milk. Colostrum contains a lot of antibody (a thick fluid generated by the breasts for a few days after delivery). Breastfeeding strengthens a child's immune system.

Antigens' molecules differ from those in your body. Once an antigen enters your body, your immune system detects it. To fight this antigen invader, your immune system uses antibodies.

Monoclonal antibodies are created in laboratories. They reflect your immune system's ability to fight pathogens. Immunotherapy with monoclonal antibodies combats infections.

Antibodies are classified by location. Each is designated with a letter and 'immunoglobulin' (Ig).

• IgA Function: IgA defends against ingested and breathed germs. IgD B cell surface antibodies.
• IgD Function: It supports B cell development and activation, according to scientists.
• IgE Function: IgE antibodies trigger mast cells (a kind of white blood cell) to release histamine and other substances into the bloodstream. IgE antibodies combat allergens.
• IgG Function: This antibody makes roughly 70% to 75% of your body's immunoglobulins. Blood and tissue fluids contain it. IgG antibodies fight viral and bacterial illnesses.
• IgM Function: IgM antibodies in the blood and lymph system fight pathogens. They regulate immunological function.

Antibody proteins: Each antibody is composed of four polypeptides, two heavy and two light.

Two heavy chains and two light chains form a Y-shaped molecule in each antibody. Each antibody is formed differently according to the amino acid sequence at the 'Y' tips.

• Transient Hypogammaglobulinemia of Newborn: When maternal antibodies are eliminated at 4 to 6 months, the body responds physiologically. The infant suffers from repeated infections, which is comparable to X-linked agammaglobulinemia. To address this issue, the child's immune system generates an antibody.
• Selective Ig Immunodeficiencies (IgA Selective Deficiency): IgM antibodies transition to IgG and IgA. Heavy-chain gene switching issues can cause this.
• Super IgM Syndrome: This illness affects the CD40 ligand T-cell gene. This hinders B and T lymphocytes' immune response cooperation. CD40 prevents B cells from switching from IgM to other antibodies.
• Common Variable Immunodeficiency Disorder: Common variable immunodeficiency (CVID) causes low levels of obstructive antibodies and increased infection risk. Although typically diagnosed in adults, it can also affect children.
• Multiple myelomas: A malignancy known as multiple myeloma develops in a type of white blood cell known as a plasma cell.
• Severely combined immunodeficiency disorders (SCID): SCID is caused by abnormalities in genes involved in immune cell growth and function. SCID babies appear healthy at birth but are prone to infections.
• Immunodeficiency with ataxia-telangiectasia: Ataxia-telangiectasia causes immunological and neurological abnormalities. Due to recurrent sinopulmonary infections, the immunological deficit can vary greatly, causing morbidity and mortality in some cases.
• DiGeorge syndrome: DiGeorge Syndrome (DGS) is characterised by T-cell deficit, facial features, congenital cardiac disease, and hypocalcemia. Embryonic abnormalities cause DGS.
• Lymphomas: Lymphatic system is the body's disease-fighting network. Hodgkin's and non-lymphomas Hodgkin's are the main types.
• Acute leukaemia: Acute lymphocytic leukaemia (ALL) is a blood and bone marrow cancer.
• Lymphoproliferative disorders: Unchecked lymphocyte proliferation causes lymphocytosis, lymphadenopathy, and bone marrow invasion in lymphoproliferative disorders (LPD). Immunocompromised people often get these diseases.
• Celiac disease: Gluten contributes to autoimmune disease. Celiac sprue is another name for gluten-sensitive enteropathy.
• Dermatomyositis: Dermatomyositis is a rare inflammatory condition characterised by muscle weakness and a recognisable skin rash .
• Multiple sclerosis: MS affects the brain and spine (central nervous system). MS' immune system attacks myelin, reducing brain-to-body communication. The condition can cause permanent nerve damage.
• Pernicious anaemia: One of the causes of vitamin B12 deficient anaemia is pernicious anaemia. It is believed that an autoimmune condition prevents a person from producing intrinsic factor, a chemical found in the stomach.

• Antithyroglobulin Antibody Test: Your doctor may recommend an antithyroglobulin antibody test if you have thyroid problems. This test tracks thyroid cancer treatment progress.
• CBC: A complete blood count measures a person's blood cells in a lab. Complete blood count (CBC) measures red, white, platelets, haemoglobin, and hematocrit.
• Blood smear: Blood smears measure cell count and shape. Part of a full blood count (CBC). Sickle cell anaemia is caused by faulty haemoglobin.
• Flow cytometry of lymphocytes: Flow cytometry studies cells and particles. Inject suspended cells or particles into a flow cytometer. 10,000 cells are analysed in under a minute.
• Testing for antibodies against Neutrophils: An ANCA test checks for antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies in the blood. ANCAs are autoantibodies. Autoantibodies are immune system proteins that attack normal tissue. Autoantibodies target neutrophil proteins.
• Biopsy and an aspirate of the bone marrow: An aspiration or biopsy of the bone marrow can determine if it's healthy and producing enough blood cells. Medical professionals use these techniques to identify and monitor blood and marrow disorders, including some cancers, and unexplained fevers.
• PCR: PCR testing is an efficient and accurate way to diagnose infectious diseases and genetic alterations. Pathogen DNA or RNA or aberrant cells reduce the number of neutrophils in a sample.
• Fluorescent Antinuclear Antibody Test: Fluorescent antinuclear antibody blood tests are most common. Your doctor examines fluorescent-labelled antibodies under a microscope to measure their fluorescence. This test excludes lupus.

• Acupuncture: Acupuncture safely treats autoimmune disorders. Acupuncture can balance the immune system by regulating it. Acupuncture reduces systemic inflammation, which may worsen autoimmune symptoms.
• Hypnosis: Four studies found that hypnosis improved immune response to stress and mood. Hypnosis is effective at treating pain, which can help autoimmune disease symptoms.
• Chiropractic procedures: Regular chiropractic adjustments and care promote joint and spinal health, which supports the nervous system. You can truly strengthen your immune system by having better spine and body function and mobility.
• Regulatory T cell augmentation: Tregs maintain physiological homeostasis (APC) by limiting the activated, proliferation, and effector actions of a number of immune cells, including CD4+ and CD8+ Tumor lymphocytes, natural killer (NK) cells, NK T lymphocytes, B cells, and antibody response cells.
• Using the gut microbiota: The gut microbiota of autoimmune patients and healthy people differ in content and diversity. In autoimmune patients, high concentrations of certain microbial species induce pro-inflammatory responses, while their absence induces anti-inflammatory responses.
• Gene therapy: By addressing the underlying genetic issue, gene therapy is a medical strategy for treating or preventing disease. Instead of utilising drugs or surgery, gene therapy procedures let doctors change a person's genetic composition to address a problem.
• Bone marrow transplant: A bone marrow transplant is a treatment that replaces bone marrow that isn't creating enough healthy blood cells with healthy blood-forming stem cells. A bone marrow transplant is also known as a stem cell transplant.

• Steroids for controlling production of Antibodies: Anti-inflammatory drugs reduce inflammation by limiting the migration of polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs) to regions of cellular and tissue damage. They are helpful in increasing the attacking efficiency of antibodies.
• Analgesics for pain in Antibodies: medications like aspirin, ibuprofen, diclofenac sodium and acetaminophen are examples of analgesics that can reduce some of the pain all over the body and also helpful in maintaining levels of antibodies in the body fighting against various infections.
• Nutritional supplements for growth of Antibodies: the nutritional supplements in form of methylcobalamin, lycopene, vitamin b12 and other calcium supplements helpful in regulating formation of antibodies in the body.
• Supplements for promotion of growth at the time of Antibodies depletion: If the patient is hypoglycemic, dextrose must be given to the rehydration solution after the bolus dosage to prevent hypoglycemia.
• Antivirals for treating infection of Antibodies: Oseltamivir or inhaled zanamivir are the Antiviral drugs that are known for treating different forms of infection which leads to antibody deficiency.
• Chemotherapeutic medicines for Antibodies: Despite the fact that cancer is incurable, chemotherapy and radiation are effective treatments. In severe situations, the intestines may be surgically removed or replaced with a donor organ.