Stomach (Human Anatomy): Image, Function, Diseases, and More

The stomach is a specialised organ formed of muscles on the upper left part of the trunk. At the time food enters the stomach through the food pipe, also called the oesophagus, at the end of the oesophagus and the entry of food into the stomach, a muscular valve is present called the esophageal sphincter.

Acids and enzymes are formed in the stomach for the purpose of digestion of the food we eat. The folds formed in the stomach due to emptying and absorption purposes are called rugae. The peristaltic motion flexes the stomach on a regular basis, assisting digestion at the stomach's end and at the small intestine's entry point, where the pyloric sphincter is present.

Several layers of muscle and other tissues make up your stomach:

• Mucosa: It is the layer that lines the stomach. Mucosa has tiny ridges when empty (rugae). When full, mucosa grows and ridges flatten.
• Submucosa: It is an important layer which is having neural connections comprising nerve cells, connective tissue, blood arteries, and lymph vessels. The mucosa is protected.
• Muscularis: Stomach's main muscle is muscularis externa. Three layers contract and relax to digest food.
• Serosa: The serosa is the epithelial layer that is the most superficial and covers the stomach.
• Parietal Cells: In addition to secreting a protein known as intrinsic factor, parietal cells are specialised secretory epithelial cells that are responsible for the generation of hydrochloric acid (HCl) and its subsequent release into the lumen of the stomach via the gastric pits.
• Mucous Neck Cells: In the portion of the stomach, there are gastric glands that produce mucus-producing cells that secrete an alkaline mucus that resembles the mucus produced by the surface epithelium cells.
• Chief Cells: Pepsinogen is secreted by chief cells, which are specialised secretory cells located at the base of the gastric glands in the fundus of the stomach. Chief cells are responsible for the digestion of food.
• G Cells: In addition to this, neuroendocrine cells may be found in the gastric glands on the mucosa of the stomach. These cells are also referred to as enterochromaffin-like cells or G-cells. These cells are responsible for the secretion of a number of different chemicals that are necessary for the formation of gastric acid. Histamine is produced and secreted by the cells that resemble ECL.
• D-Cells: these are responsible for the production of somatostatin, an inhibitory substance. Foveolar cells and enteroendocrine cells are examples of secretory cells that are found in the stomach glands.
• Foveolar Cells: By making mucus and bicarbonate, they protect the stomach from the acidic environment that could damage it..
• Enteroendocrine Cells: The digestive hormones gastrin, somatostatin, and ghrelin are made by these cells.. Gastrin release occurs in response to increased gastric distension, increased gastric pH, and the presence of amino acids in the stomach.
• Ghrelin: It is a hormone produced that is released from either the stomach and the liver. It is widely termed as the 'hunger hormone' because high levels of this hormone are found in people who are fasting. Ghrelin is a hormone that is set to release from the stomach and liver.
• Gastrin: It is a hormone that is produced by the 'G' cells that line the stomach and the upper portion of the small intestine. Gastrin is then secreted into the bloodstream.

The stomach is a muscular organ located in the upper left part of the abdomen. It plays a vital role in the digestive process by mechanically and chemically breaking down food. Here are some of the main functions of the stomach:

• Storage: The stomach can temporarily store and hold the food you eat until it can be further broken down and digested.
• Mechanical digestion: The stomach mixes and grinds the food with its muscular walls, breaking it down into smaller pieces. This is known as mechanical digestion.
• Chemical digestion: The stomach also produces stomach acid (hydrochloric acid) and enzymes that help to chemically break down the food. Stomach acid helps to kill any harmful bacteria that may be present in the food, and the enzymes help to break down proteins, carbohydrates, and fats.
• Absorption: While the main function of the small intestine is absorption, the stomach can also absorb some substances, such as alcohol and certain medications.
• Control of the digestive process: The stomach helps to regulate the flow of food from the esophagus into the small intestine by contracting and relaxing its muscular walls. This process is known as peristalsis.

Overall, the stomach plays a key role in the digestive process, breaking down food mechanically and chemically, and helping to control the flow of food throughout the digestive system.

• Gastroesophageal Reflux: The contents formed in the stomach are travelled back into the stomach from the oesophagus, no pre-elemenary symptoms I found and repeated reflux may cause hyperacidity which concludes 2 heartburn and abrupt coughing.
• Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD): Due to repeated reflux of stomach contents many complications occur because of it is considered as a complex disorder called GERD, which can finally 'cause chronic diseases like metaplasia.
• Dyspepsia: Due to higher amount of fat present in the food somehow lesser digestion of food is caused, which is called dyspepsia. It can also be considered as a secondary symptom of any benign or severe condition.
• Gastric Ulcer (Stomach Ulcer): The degradation in the layer of stomach causing bleeding and excruciating pain. These are caused by NSAIDs abuse, or when the acidity of the stomach is increased due to bacterial infections like H. pylori infection. this degradation might be reversible or irreversible
• Peptic Ulcer Disease: Experts consider the ulcers in the duodenum or the stomach causing excruciating pain bleeding and vomiting and generalised nausea.
• Gastritis: Because of interstitial infection in the lining of stomach causing increase in acidic environment of the stomach which can be caused by drug abuse ,steroid abuse and alcohol abuse or even due to bacterial infections
• Stomach Cancer: gastric carcinoma is more common in northern regions of India by adenocarcinoma and lymphoma occurs in southern regions of India as seen in various studies caused by metaplasia in the lining of stomach due to excessive indeed degradation and recurrent infection.
• Zollinger-Ellison Syndrome (ZES): The evolution of tumours at the end lining of the stomach which can be one or multiple which can also be in different layers of the stomach. gastritis peptic ulcer disease and severe GERD occur from this disorder.
• Gastric Varices: When blood vessels in the stomach become swollen due to increased pressure in the stomach maybe occurring because of severe liver dysfunction this condition is called varices. Having a higher risk of bleeding although lesser than esophageal varices.
• Stomach Bleeding: Due to inflammation causing loss of gastric mucosa causes bleeding in the stomach, the clinical symptoms include reddish material in the vomit are blackish material in the vomit or stool, which is considered as a part of emergency medicine
• Gastroparesis (Delayed Gastric Emptying): because of comorbidities like diabetes, pancreatitis or liver disorders the delayed emptying of the stomach is caused. In this condition the peristaltic movement causing muscle contractions are reduced in the stomach.
• Gastric Outlet Obstruction: It is one of the most common complications of peptic ulcers in which delayed emptying of the stomach causes various dysfunctions.
• Dumping Syndrome: Variety of symptoms occurring due to accelerated emptying are dumping of contents having lot higher amount of salts into the Duodenum
• Mallory - Weiss Syndrome: It is Characterised by longitudinal partial tears (only mucosa + submucosa involved), which are two important layers of the stomach wall. this disorder is more common in Alcoholic males, because of liver disorder and gastric inflammation.
• Trichobezoar: The Concretion of hair formed in stomach and intestine which is more Common in Long haired girls or women Seen as a complication of Trichophagia which is habit of eating their own hair causing formation of hairball in stomach.
• Gastric Volvulus: It is a situation occurring due to excessive stress on the walls of the stomach due to increased contraction and relaxation causing Torsion of stomach.

• Upper Endoscopy (Esophagogastroduodenoscopy Or Egd): An endoscope is a bendable tube that has a camera mounted on the end of it. It is entered through the mouth. The oesophagus, stomach, and duodenum may all be seen through the endoscope at the same time .
• Computed Tomography (Ct Scan): Images of the abdomen and stomach can be produced using a CT scanner with the use of x-rays and a computer.
• Magnetic Resonance Imaging: A scanner is able to provide high-resolution pictures of the abdomen and stomach by utilising a magnetic field.
• Ph Testing: Monitoring of acid levels in the oesophagus can be accomplished by inserting a tube through the nose and into the oesophagus. This may assist in the diagnosis of GERD or lead to a change in therapy.
• Barium Swallow: After the patient has swallowed barium, X-ray films of their stomach and oesophagus will be taken. Ulcers and other conditions can occasionally be diagnosed with this method.
• Upper Gi Series: The oesophagus, stomach, and upper portion of the small intestine are all imaged using X-ray technology.
• Gastric Emptying Study: A measurement of the rate at which food is eliminated from the stomach. A chemical is used to mark the food, and it is then scanned using a computer.
• Stomach Biopsy: A tiny sample of stomach tissue might be removed by the physician for further analysis during an endoscopy. This can identify an infection with H. pylori, as well as cancer and other conditions.
• H. Pylori Test: Even though H. pylori infection does not cause ulcers in the majority of individuals who have it, simple serum or stool testing can be done to screen for the infection in persons who already have ulcers or to ensure that the infection has been eradicated following treatment.
• Saline Load Test: This test involves emptying the stomach and doing Nasogastric aspiration after insertion of saline fluid and checking the amount of residual saline fluid.

• Iv Fluid Resuscitation: The body's electrolytes change during periods of severe vomiting and diarrhoea, which results in neurological and muscular fatigue. For this, normal saline and potassium derivative IV fluids are used.
• Vagotomy: the various branches of the vagus nerve are surgically divided because of various gastric symptoms by the expert surgeons.
• Gastrectomy: a part of the stomach is removed or whole of the stomach which can be done by expert surgeons, required for the clinical management of gastric carcinoma or any other severe disorder.
• Cauterization: In this procedure ligation of gastric arteries and veins is done at the time of heavy bleeding used in varices and herniation of the stomach.
• Gastric Ligation: Surgical ligation of bleeding vessels or wedge resection of stomach containing the arteriole.
• Gastropexy: Patients diagnosed with a big esophageal hiatal hernia are often candidates for the surgical therapy.. in which detorsion followed by fixation of the stomach is done.
• Chemotherapy: For the treatment of gastric carcinoma therapeutic procedure is used it can be applied as a localised application of chemotherapeutic drugs or oral and IV parenteral routes can be used.
• Pyloromyotomy: For the treatment of hypertrophic pyloric stenosis, a longitudinal incision is made through the anterior wall of the pyloric canal all the way to the level of the submucosa..
• Sengstaken-Blakemore (SB) tube: Either stopping or delaying the bleeding from the oesophagus and stomach can be accomplished with the use of a red Sengstaken-Blakemore (SB) tube..
• Flatus Tube: it is used for relieving the gaseous increase in stomach because of various infections and acid secretion
• Colonoscopic Detorsion: it is a therapeutic procedure for relieving the volvulus formation in the stomach.
• Endoscopy: If stomach bleeding is evident, the bleeding can be stopped during an upper endoscopy using the instruments on the endoscope..
• Stomach Surgery: Surgery is the only treatment option for severe cases of gastrointestinal bleeding, ulcers that have ruptured, and malignancy.

• Histamine (H2) Blockers: Because histamine induces an increase in the quantity of acid that is generated by the stomach, blocking histamine may result in a decrease in acid production as well as a reduction in the severity of GERD symptoms. examples contains ranitidine famotidine cimetidine
• Proton Pump Inhibitors: These medications work by inhibiting, directly and specifically, the acid pumps in the stomach. examples are lansoprazole (Prevacid), omeprazole (Prilosec), pantoprazole (Protonix), rabeprazole (AcipHex), and esomeprazole (Nexium).
• Antacids: These medications may be helpful in mitigating the side effects of acid, but they do not eliminate bacteria or inhibit the generation of acid.consisting of aluminum and magnesium hydroxide
• Ulcer Preventive: Sucralfate is used both in the treatment of duodenal ulcers and in the prevention of their recurrence .
• Motility Agents: A prokinetic agent is a type of medication that improves the motility of the gastrointestinal system by increasing the number of contractions or the intensity of those contractions. This type of medication is also known as a gastroprokinetic agent, a gastrokinetic agent, or a propulsive. There are other names for this type of medication as well. examples included A serotonin-4 (5-HT4) receptor is tegaserod.
• Chloride Channel Activator: Lubiprostone is part of the clinical category known as chloride channel activators. This is accomplished by boosting the amount of fluid that is already present in your intestines, which, in turn, makes it easier for faeces to go through your digestive tract.
• Anti-Diarrheal Agent: Loperamide is also used for chronic or recurrent diarrhoea caused by bowel diseases such as Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, or short bowel syndrome. This kind of diarrhoea may linger for weeks or months. Additionally, cholestryamine is used.
• Prebiotics: In the therapeutic treatment, they are used to boost the activity of beneficial bacteria in the gut, which allows for a more stable ph level in the gut to be maintained as required.
• Probiotics: They are beneficial to the ecosystem of the gut and provide beneficial microorganisms such as Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus.
• Antibiotics: Antibiotics, in combination with other treatments, may be used to treat an infection caused by H. pylori. During treatment, the antibiotics are given to the stomach in an effort to heal the damage caused by the infection. In the treatment of parasites, some examples include metronidazole, praziquantel, and albendazole. In the treatment of bacterial infections, some examples include azithromycin, ciprofloxacin, and tetracycline.